Was Christmas Pagan?
And Other Attacks on Christmas
Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI
Biblical Authority Ministries, August 30, 2024
Every year I get “love letters”—can I call them that? You know, those letters blasting me with the same old claims that “Christmas was pagan.” For some reason, I’m supposed to repent of not believing the pagans when they insist that their “holiday” is the true one. I’m chastised for not giving Christmas back to the pagans and locking myself in my house from the four Advent Sundays to the end of the Twelve Days of Christmas.
Don’t get me wrong, I’m not criticizing or poking fun at
people for not celebrating Christmas, the resurrection, or their own birthdays.
But I think it is wise to refute these claims from time to time as a reminder
that pagans usually don’t get it right. Polytheistic and pantheistic
pagans—including believers in evolution, Roman and Greek
mythology, ancestor worship, Wicca, etc.—attack Christianity with fervor.
We need to remember that false religions are not neutral but have an active opposition for Christ and His Word (e.g., Matthew 12:30; Luke 11:23; Titus 1:15). Sadly, there are some Christians that buy into what these pagans are claiming, and they become tools to advance paganism, even if they don’t realize it. So let’s look at these common claims.
The first one to plead his cause
seems right, Until his neighbor comes and examines him. (Proverbs
18:17; NKJV)
What Is a Holiday?
A “holiday” is a “holy day.” Thus, it is predicated on the
concept of absolute holiness, which is by definition, the God of the Bible. He is perfectly holy.
A holiday is literally a “holy day,” but
the name is derived from the Old English hāligdæg (hālig meaning
“holy” and dæg meaning “day”). “Holy” means “sacred,
spiritually perfect, hallowed, and godly.” This is why we call the Bible
the Holy Bible. “Bible” literally means “the book” or more
properly, the collection of books from a Holy God. Furthermore, it is why
Christians strive to live a godly and holy life as God patterned for
man in the life of Jesus Christ
(1 Peter
1:16).
The God of the Bible began instituting
holy days in the Old Testament as types and shadows of Christ (Colossians
2:16–17):
- Weekly
Sabbath (Exodus 16:23–29, 20:8–11)[1]
- Passover
(Exodus 12:1–4; Leviticus
23:5; Numbers 9:1–14, 28:16; Deuteronomy
16:1–7; Matthew 26:17; Mark
14:12–26; John 2:13, 11:55; 1
Corinthians 5:7; Hebrews
11:28)
- Feast
of Unleavened Bread (Exodus
12:15–20, 12:39, 13:3–10, 23:15, 34:18; Leviticus
23:6–8; Numbers
28:17–25; Deuteronomy
16:3–4, 16:8; Mark 14:1, 14:12; Act 12:3)
- Firstfruits
(Exodus
23:19, 34:26; Leviticus
23:9–14; Deuteronomy 26:5, 26:9–10)
- Feast
of Weeks (Exodus 23:16, 34:22; Leviticus
23:15–21; Numbers
28:26–31; Deuteronomy
16:9–12)
- Feast
of Trumpets (Leviticus 23:23–25; Numbers
29:1–6; 2 Samuel 6:15)
- Day of
Atonement (Yom Kippur—Leviticus
16:1–34, 23:26–32; Numbers
29:7–11)
- Feast
of Tabernacles/Booths (Exodus 23:16, 34:22; Leviticus
23:33–43; Numbers
29:12–34; Deuteronomy
16:13–15; 1 Kings 8:3; 2
Chronicles 7:1; Zechariah
14:16–19; John 7:2)
There was also a Jubilee year. After seven
cycles of seven years (49 years), the fiftieth year was the Jubilee! The point
is that God gave holidays to man. In a nutshell, holidays exist by
being predicated on the existence of the Holy God of the Bible.
The New Testament continues in this tradition with the
Lord’s Day, which is the first day of the week (Acts 20:7; 1
Corinthians 16:2; Revelation 1:10) and honors when Christ resurrected. The
Breaking of Bread—also called the Last Supper, Lord’s Supper, Communion, or the
Elements—is a New Testament regular observance of the Passover fulfilled
in Jesus for the New Covenant. Jesus, the Christ, is the final
and perfect Passover Lamb. He was sacrificed and resurrected as the ultimate
Victor once for all. The Lord’s Supper celebrates Christ’s death, burial, and
resurrection.
Celebrating new holidays to the Lord is a Christian freedom. As
the Bible says,
One person esteems one day above
another; another esteems every day alike. Let each be fully convinced in his
own mind. He who observes the day, observes it to the Lord; and he who does not
observe the day, to the Lord he does not observe it. He who eats, eats to the
Lord, for he gives God thanks; and he who does not eat, to the Lord he does not
eat, and gives God thanks. (Romans
14:5–6; NKJV)
In the Old Testament, we also find the Feast of Queen Esther
(Esther
2:18). This festival was instituted by the king of Persia. Solomon once
instituted a 14-day feast and celebration (1 Kings
8:65). We also see something like this in the intertestamental period: a
new festival—Hanukkah.
Hanukkah
Just as man is made in the image of a “holiday-making” God (Genesis
1:26–27) who instituted feasts and festivals, so man has often honored God
with new feasts and festivals. The godly Jews, for example, honored God with a
holiday when they developed an eight-day winter festival called Hanukkah or
Festival of Dedication (Hanukkah is derived from the word
“dedication” in Hebrew). It was to rededicate the second temple, and one
tradition is to progressively light a special nine-branch candleholder called a
menorah. This is why this holy day is sometimes called the Festival of Lights.
Jesus had no problem joining this celebration at the
second temple of God in Jerusalem approximately 2,000 years ago (John
10:22–23). Jews often celebrate this, but so do many Christians as a way of
honoring God.
There is nothing inherently wrong with
a Christian celebrating Hanukkah, as Christ did as well. This is not
a holiday prescribed in the Bible, and yet Jesus shows us the
freedom we can have by making new holidays dedicated to the Lord.
This freedom does come with some exceptions though. The
Bible commands we abstain from certain things, and if feasts and
festivals dishonor God by utilizing things from
which God commanded us to abstain—then they become a problem. As a
quick check, be sure to watch out for holidays openly trying to honor false
gods or forcing practices such as these that were listed in Scripture:
- Forced
abstention from food other than what had been strangled or offered to
idols (Acts 15:20–29; 1
Timothy 4:3)
- Sexual
immorality and fleshly lusts (Acts
15:20–29; 1 Thessalonians 4:3; 1 Peter
2:11)
- Any
form of evil (1 Thessalonians 5:22)
How Long Ago Were Christians Celebrating Christmas?
Christmas Day (also called the Nativity of Our Lord), is
celebrated on December 25. Christmas has been widely celebrated by underground
Christians and documented by Christians since about AD 200. Christmas became
even more popular when Christianity was allowed to be out in the open after the
Edicts of Toleration and Milan in AD 311 and 313 respectively.
Popular early church father Sextus Julius Africanus wrote
the Chronographiai around AD 221, which put the conception of
Christ on March 25—nine months prior to December 25, the date being used for
Christmas. For context, this was about 125 years after the last of Jesus’
apostles died. Hippolytus of Rome also mentions December 25 in the first decade
of AD 200 in his Commentary on Daniel. Some Christians still
celebrate an ancient feast on March 25 called the Feast of Annunciation (also
called Conceptio Christi, Solemnity of the Annunciation, Lady
Day, or Feast of the Incarnation), celebrating the immaculate conception of
Christ.[2]
Is December 25 the actual day of Christ’s birth? That is a
great question with mixed reviews, but what we know is that widespread
celebrating of December 25 in churches across the Roman
Empire as the birth and first nativity of Christ was very early.
In the AD 300s, Ephraim the Syrian, writing about the first
nativity or Christmas, points out that, “All men honour the day of Thy birth.
Thou righteous One, keep Thou the glory of Thy birth; for even Herod honoured
the day of His Birth!”[3] John
Cassian points out the connection between Christ’s birth and its connection to
Epiphany (the Twelfth Day of Christmas) in the late AD 300s and early AD 400s:
In the country of Egypt this custom is by ancient tradition
observed that—when Epiphany is past, which the priests of that province regard
as the time, both of our Lord’s baptism and also of His birth in the flesh, and
so celebrate the commemoration of either mystery not separately as in the
Western provinces but on the single festival of this day.[4]
December 25 was defended by Sulpitius Severus in
consultation with Sabinus and Rufinus in Sacred History (Historia
Sacra) chapter 27 in AD 403. The point is that Christmas, the birth of
Christ, was recognized and celebrated from the early days of the church.
Xmas
Christmas is also denoted as X-mas/X’mas/Xmas. The
letter Chi (X) in Greek was used as the shorthand
notation of Christ, being the first letter of the name Christ, or
more specifically, Christos (Χριστός).
Today, a few people unwittingly think if they use “Xmas,”
they are deleting the name of Christ from this holiday because of
anti-Christian sentiment. However, Xmas is an
ancient Christian usage for Christmas whether they realize it or not.
Did Christmas Come From a Pagan “Holiday”?
To start, there is nothing “holy” about anything pagan. Now
that that is cleared up, there are some modern claims about
Christmas—particularly that it is born out of pagan celebrations, such as
Saturnalia, Sol Invictus, or Winter Solstice.
Saturnalia
Saturnalia is the popular Roman mythology festival to
the god Saturn (god of the harvest and time) in the Roman
pantheon. It was celebrated on December 17.
December was the tenth month in the Roman calendar. In the
old Roman calendar, the year began with March (in honor of the god Mars, who is
the Greek equivalent of Ares and the Germanic equivalent of Tiwas—these are
just ancestor-worshipped corruptions of Noah’s grandson Tiras[5]).
The second month was April—which is the Roman word for “second.” Many obviously
recognize certain prefixes for several later months like Sept-ember
(7), Oct-ober (8), Nov-ember (9), and again, Dec-ember
is 10.
Let me explain a little more about the old Roman calendar
prior to ~700 BC. They had a 10-month calendar with the fifth and sixth months
meaning five and six respectively:
- Martius
- Aprilis
- Maius
- Juniius
- Quintilis
(5)
- Sextilis
(6)
- September
- October
- November
- December
The remaining ~61 days, were just left to winter—not divvied
up as months. About 700 BC, Numa Pompilius (a leader in Rome) added January as
the first month before March (Martius) and added February after December. About
450 BC, February was moved to be between January and March—for reasons unknown
to this author.
This calendar up to this point was a lunar calendar where
each month was about 29–30 days. But the month-based year was off from the
solar year (by about 10–11 days), so they had to add an intercalary month (like
most do with lunar month-based years) called Mercedonius in
Latin.
Essentially, every few years they add a thirteenth month to
get the calendar back to being in line with the seasons. Julius Caesar, about
46 BC, decided to adjust the calendar to be a permanently solar calendar of 365
1/4 days, which keeps the seasons in line but requires adjusting of days within
each month. This is called the Julian calendar.
In the original calculation of the Julian calendar, the
solstice was on December 25, but by AD 300 the Julian calendar had drifted to
have the solstice on December 23. It continued to move earlier until the
adoption of the Gregorian calendar (which slightly adjusts the Julian calendar
to fix this drift).
Why is all this important to Saturnalia? Some have suggested
that Saturnalia was a holiday associated with the winter solstice. However,
Saturnalia ends at the latest on December 23. Any celebration of Saturnalia
prior to Julius Caesar still had many more days until the winter solstice. It
came close to overlapping the winter solstice after Julius Caesar, but it took
a few hundred years to properly overlap.
Saturnalia was originally on December 17. Later Saturnalia
was expanded into a three-day (then a seven-day) festival marking the end of
the autumn sowing season. According to historical records, Saturnalia lasted
seven days in Caesar’s and Cicero’s days.
During Emperor Augustus Caesar’s day, it was shortened to
three days (particularly for government officials like the courts).[6] Thus,
it would have ended on December 19 in his reign. During Emperor Caligula’s
reign, it was extended to five days.[7] So
it was finished on December 21.
This festival was celebrated after the fall planting season
so that the people (most of whom had agricultural jobs) were more available to
“party,” if you will, in Rome and other provinces. But if you know much about
the provinces of Rome, they weren’t Roman and they didn’t even
follow Roman gods. So to them—whether in Judea or Egypt or elsewhere—it was
merely a time off from customary work and a good time to travel and move if you
were required to (think of Christmas break or summer break today). I can’t help
but imagine if this was the perfect time for a carpenter to move from Nazareth
to Bethlehem to get set up to be registered.
Regardless, this festival was always finished before
Christmas. So, if Christians were taking this pagan day and making
a Christian alternative, they failed miserably! Any way you look at
it, they missed it by about a week!
Saturnalia is the equivalent festival of the Greek Kronia
with the corresponding Greek god called
Chronos/Chronus/Kronos/Cronus, the god of harvest and time (the name
reflects time, think of chronology, chronometer, etc.). So although this might
have been a huge festival for Rome and Greece, the rest of the provinces
weren’t really celebrating a Roman god.
Interestingly, the Roman Saturn (where we get the name
Saturday and the planet Saturn) and the Greek equivalent, Chronos, is a
corruption of Noah. An ancient historian Eupolemus (as preserved by Eusebius of
Caesarea in the early to mid-AD 300s) writes,
The Babylonians say, that the first was Belus, called Cronus
or Saturn (that is, Noah), and of him was begotten another Belus and Chanaan
(it should be read Cham), and he (i.e. Ham) begat Chanaan, the father of the
Phoenicians; and of him another son, Chus, was begotten, whom the Greeks call
Asbolos, the father of the Ethiopians, and the brother of Mestraim, the father
of the Egyptians.[8]
You should be able to recognize Chanaan/Canaan in this list,
whom God judged and gave their land to the Israelites led by Joshua.
Also, Belus is a title passed from Noah to his son Ham/Cham
and so forth. Although not mentioned here, this title ultimately passes as far
down as Nimrod, the son of Cush (Chus), and was corrupted in Bel and Baal,
which is where the pagan Baal worship in the Old Testament came from—merely a
form of ancestor worship.
But of significant note, Chronos or Saturn is Noah. It is a
corruption of Noah to a godlike status. It was ancestor worship of a great,
godly man. Sadly, this makes sense. Noah and his early progeny lived longer
lifespans. Noah lived 350 years after the flood; Shem lived 500 years after the
flood, and so forth.
As the ages subsequently drop, these patriarchs outlived
great, great, great grandchildren. Noah, for instance, outlived his great,
great, great-grandson Peleg![9] Shem
lived until Isaac was about 50 years old. So, many of these patriarchs were
looked at as though they were “immortals” or “gods.” These “gods” still
died—they just outlived everyone else.
Another thing that happens is that some of these patriarchs
and their descendants get mixed up in their orally passed-down accounts. And
the accounts themselves get warped, paganized, and embellished.[10]
Fascinatingly, Noah, the oldest patriarch after the flood,
who became the first farmer and trainer of farmers (Genesis 9), is corrupted
into the “god” of harvest and time. The point is that Saturn/Chronos, which is
where Saturnalia and Kronia come from, is actually based on a biblical person:
Noah. So that day really shouldn’t belong to pagans in the first place.
Sol Invictus
Sol Invictus means “unconquered sun.” Sol means
“sun” and is where we get the name “solar,” for instance. Sol Invictus (or more
properly Dies Natalis Solis Invicti [Birth of the Unconquered
Sun]) was the celebration of the Roman sun god in the latter stages
of the Roman Empire and also the patron of Roman soldiers. It was a form of
sun-worship.
Sol Invictus, however, came into existence well after we
have recorded history that Christmas was widely celebrated. Sol Invictus was
first started by Roman emperor Lucius Aurelian in AD 274. If anything, the
pagans took Christmas—which was already a widespread festival for
Christians—and wanted a pagan alternative.
Winter Solstice
It is doubtful that Sol Invictus is related to the winter
solstice. One could see how it relates to the sun since the winter solstice is
the day with the least amount of sunlight on earth (in the northern
hemisphere).
If Sol Invictus was meant to be associated with the winter
solstice, then they missed it by a couple of days—even by the Julian calendar
that they were using when they came up with that celebratory day. The shortest
daylight portion of the year is the winter solstice. It falls between December
20–23, whereas Sol Invictus falls on December 25.
Solstices, as well as the equinoxes, mark the changing of
the seasons. The summer solstice marks the day with the most sunlight hours and
least amount of darkness. The winter solstice marks the day with the most
darkness and least amount of sunlight—again, in the northern hemisphere. The
opposite is true in the southern hemisphere—which is why Australia, Chile,
Argentina, South Africa, New Zealand, etc., have their summer in our winter.
The spring and fall equinoxes have equal amounts of daylight
and darkness. You could probably see the reflection of the same Latin root
word aequus for “equal” in the name “equinox.” More to the
point, the godly, since Adam’s creation in Genesis 1, have utilized the sun,
moon, and stars to mark these seasonal events (Genesis 1:14),
including each new moon (where the name month comes from).
There is nothing inherently wrong with acknowledging these “turning-point” days
for the seasons and months and even celebrating them in light of Genesis
1 (1
Samuel 20:24).
Was Jesus Born in March/April Because the “Shepherds Were Keeping Watch
over Their Flocks by Night”?
Another common claim is that Jesus couldn’t have
been born in December because it was not the lambing season. Let me explain
this argument. Luke 2:8 says,
Now there were in the same
country shepherds living out in the fields, keeping watch over their flock by
night. (NKJV)
So, the argument goes that this takes place in the lambing
season (when the ewes give birth to lambs) and therefore they were out in the
fields at night during this time to watch for lambs being born to help and
protect both ewe and lamb from predators. The argument then goes that this
would have been in the early spring around March or April. Thus, those holding
this view say that a December birth is untenable.
First, we don’t know this was lambing season. Even if it
were not lambing season, in those days, shepherds were still
tasked with keeping watch over the flock in shifts by night due to predators.
It may have been a smaller number of them than a typical peak lambing season.
But let’s say it was lambing season. Let’s be a little more
accurate. The range of lambs being born is from December to May, peaking around
March and April. Farther north, it becomes later; farther south, it goes as
early as December. When sheep give birth depends on when the ewes become
pregnant (called “tupping”), which happens as early as late summer but usually
later fall and has a five-month gestation.
Diligent shepherds should be ready and keeping watch in
December. If anything, when looking at this subject in more detail, December is
indeed within the range of lambing season. So, this shouldn’t be used to rule
out a December date for Christ’s birth.
Christmas Trees Are Forbidden in Jeremiah?
Jeremiah 10:2–8 says:
Thus says the LORD: “Do not
learn the way of the Gentiles; Do not be dismayed at the signs of heaven, For
the Gentiles are dismayed at them. For the customs of the
peoples are futile; For one cuts a tree from the forest,
The work of the hands of the workman, with the ax. They decorate it with silver
and gold; They fasten it with nails and hammers So that it will not topple.
They are upright, like a palm tree, And they cannot speak; They must
be carried, Because they cannot go by themselves. Do not be afraid of
them, For they cannot do evil, Nor can they do any good.” Inasmuch
as there is none like You, O LORD (You are great, and Your
name is great in might), Who would not fear You, O King of the
nations? For this is Your rightful due. For among all the wise men of
the nations, And in all their kingdoms, There is none like You. But
they are altogether dull-hearted and foolish; A wooden idol is a
worthless doctrine. (NKJV)
This passage of Scripture is a warning about following the
gentiles in their ways of making false wooden idols and the futility of
worshipping such false gods. Pagan craftsmen cut down trees, obtain wood from
it, cut it up, craft it, and use silver and gold; and the idols still have to
be fastened to stand upright and not fall over! This type of
alleged god is worthless and can do neither good nor evil! It shows
how dull-hearted and foolish one must be to think these little wooden statues
are gods and have power!
When someone uses Jeremiah 10 to argue that Christmas
trees are forbidden, then they commit an equivocation fallacy. They are
equivocating that idols and Christmas trees are the same thing. But they are
not. Christmas trees are not gods and not items of worship. Furthermore, I’ve
never even heard of single Christian who has ever bowed down to a
Christmas tree and worshipped it as a god. That would be futile indeed.
Some might argue that the trees are cut and they are brought
into the house and decorated with gold- and silver-looking tinsel. They seem to
think this is a good response, but by this standard, then the temple
of God built by Solomon would be called into question! Consider the
wood cut and brought into the temple and the craftsmen’s intricate work and
overlaying it with gold and so on. 1
Kings 6:23–35 says,
In the inner sanctuary he made
two cherubim of olivewood, each ten cubits high. Five cubits was the length of
one wing of the cherub, and five cubits the length of the other wing of the
cherub; it was ten cubits from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other. The
other cherub also measured ten cubits; both cherubim had the same measure and
the same form. The height of one cherub was ten cubits, and so was that of the
other cherub. He put the cherubim in the innermost part of the house. And the
wings of the cherubim were spread out so that a wing of one touched the one
wall, and a wing of the other cherub touched the other wall; their other wings
touched each other in the middle of the house. And he overlaid the cherubim
with gold.
Around all the walls of the
house he carved engraved figures of cherubim and palm trees and open flowers,
in the inner and outer rooms. The floor of the house he overlaid with gold in
the inner and outer rooms.
For the entrance to the inner
sanctuary he made doors of olivewood; the lintel and the doorposts were
five-sided. He covered the two doors of olivewood with carvings of cherubim,
palm trees, and open flowers. He overlaid them with gold and spread gold on the
cherubim and on the palm trees.
So also he made for the entrance
to the nave doorposts of olivewood, in the form of a square, and two doors of
cypress wood. The two leaves of the one door were folding, and the two leaves
of the other door were folding. On them he carved cherubim and palm trees and
open flowers, and he overlaid them with gold evenly applied on the carved work.
(ESV)
The difference is that this wood in the temple was not to
be an idol and not to be worshipped but to give glory
to God.
The history of Christmas trees begins in Europe (most say
Germany; others have it in Baltic States) in the 1500–1600s. It has nothing to
do with worshipping trees or false gods, but like the temple, its use is meant
to give glory to God in Jesus Christ. The evergreen trees
in winter were a reminder of a more perfect time. These trees in the home
originated as “paradise trees” representing the garden of Eden and made their
way into Christmas decor.
How Did Saint Nicholas Become Santa Claus?
Falling on December 6 is St. Nicholas’ Day—which is during
the Christmas Advent season and runs for the four Sundays preceding Christmas.
Advent is like a month of Sundays counting down to Christmas. St. Nicholas of
Myra was a bishop (minister/pastor) in the AD 300s. He died on December 6,
hence the day that is used to celebrate his life. He was an orphan who became a
wealthy man living in what we now call Turkey but which was traditionally known
as Asia Minor (the town of Myra was later called Kale and is now called Demre).
St. Nicholas used his wealth to help the less fortunate (for
example, he kept some poor young girls out of forced prostitution by paying
their debt). He was said to have hung stockings of coins for the poor on
windowsills and so on. For his faith in Christ, he was persecuted by Roman
Emperor Diocletian and put in jail for a time. He was released by Emperor
Constantine about AD 325.
Because St. Nicholas’ Day always falls in the Christmas
season, it makes sense why Christmas today has a corrupted version of him.
Saint Nickolas is corrupted into Santa Claus (think: Sainta niclaus).
Sadly, attributes of God are applied to St.
Nicholas. This paganized version of St. Nicholas sees all, judges between
naughty and nice, gives blessings (gifts), can be everywhere at the same time,
etc. It’s better to leave St. Nicholas as St. Nicholas. As a result, many
Christians today avoid using Santa Claus as a deceptive tool on children.
Conclusion
When it comes to Christmas, the Bible simply
doesn’t tell us the day Jesus was born. We know it was at nighttime
though. Early Christians were uniformly celebrating Christ’s birth throughout
the Roman Empire on December 25 by about AD 200. They commented on it without
defense as though it were common knowledge.
Christmas was not, however, born out of a pagan holiday.
Should you celebrate? That is up to you. Consider the words of Holy Spirit
through Paul the apostle.
So let no one judge you in food
or in drink, or regarding a festival or a new moon or sabbaths, which are a
shadow of things to come, but the substance is of Christ. (Colossians
2:16–17; NKJV)
[1] See
Hosea 2:11 and Colossians 2:16.
[2] The
Feast of Annunciation was originally April 6 in some churches, but it
represented more than just the conception then. It also collectively included
things like Christ’s birth, circumcision, and baptism.
[3] Ephraim
the Syrian, “On the Nativity of Christ in the Flesh,” Hymn III, AD 306–373,
https://www.biblestudytools.com/history/early-church-fathers/post-nicene/vol-13-gregory-ephraim-and-aphrahat/ephraim-syrus/hymn-iii.html.
[4] John
Cassian, Conferences of John Cassian, Chapter 2, “Of the custom which is kept
up in the Province of Egypt for signifying the time of Easter,” AD 360–435,
https://www.ccel.org/ccel/cassian/conferences.ii.xi.ii.html.
[5] Bodie
Hodge, Tower of Babel (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2013), 174–179.
[6] Macrobius,
Saturnalia, I.10.4.
[7] Suetonius,
Life of Caligula, XVII; Dio, Roman History, LIX.6.4.
[8] Eusebius
of Caesarea, Praepar. Evangel. l. 9. c. 17. p. 419.
[9] Hodge,
Tower of Babel, 199–204.
[10] This
is why we see the Saturn/Chronos figure convoluted into Japheth, Kittim, or Ham
(some of Noah’s descendants in Genesis 10) in various accounts.
