History And Archaeology of the World’s Oldest City—Babel/Babylon
and the Tower of Babel
Bodie Hodge, M.Sc., B.Sc., PEI
Biblical Authority Ministries, March 10, 2025
Cincinnati, OH, which has suburbs extending into Indiana and
Kentucky, is an old city (by US standards). It was one of the first settled
cities (1788) between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. As a
result, it was called the “Queen of the West”.
Yet, Cincinnati is not as old as New York (formerly New
Amsterdam, founded in 1625). And these US cities are nowhere near as old as
London, England (almost 2000 years old) or Rome, Italy (founded around 750 BC).
But even those cities are not as old as Jerusalem (which means the “peace of
Jebus”, “possession of peace”, “foundation of peace”, “teaching of peace”—Salem
or shalom means peace by the way). In Scripture, Jerusalem is also
called the city of Jebus, Salem, the City of God, Zion, City of David, and so
on. Jerusalem is mentioned in Judges 19:10-11 (NKJV):
However, the man was not willing to
spend that night; so he rose and departed, and came to opposite Jebus (that is,
Jerusalem). With him were the two saddled donkeys; his concubine was also with
him. They were near Jebus, and the day
was far spent; and the servant said to his master, “Come, please, and let us
turn aside into this city of the Jebusites and lodge in it.”
Jerusalem was founded by Jebus and his offspring the
Jebusites, one of the Canaanite tribes after the confusion event at Babel. The
city was given to the Israelites after the conquest to judge the Canaanites for
their sin against God (e.g., Leviticus 18).
Ahh, but Babel—now that is an ancient city. In fact, it
was the first city that was established after the global Flood of Noah’s day. The
Flood destroyed every city that existed prior to the Flood (e.g., the city of Enoch, per Genesis 4:17). Outside of
Noah’s farm (Genesis 9:20), this was where civilization re-began and, more
properly, self-destructed. Like the city of Enoch, Babel was ultimately
destroyed and left in ruins. But unlike Enoch, there are archaeological remains
of Babel that can be studied today--so let's evaluate this for educational and religious purposes.
Established after Noah’s Farm
After the Flood, God told Noah and his sons to be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth (Genesis 9:1). So, naturally, the earth was to be divided among Noah’s three sons and their future progeny. But as a result of the confrontations at Noah’s farm, Noah amended this allotment of land by asking God to enlarge the territory for Japheth, thus reducing the likely territory for Ham (the culprit who caused his own son Canaan to be cursed by Noah; Genesis 9:20–27).
What does this mean? It means that God was the one
responsible for allotting the territorial divisions. This makes sense
Scripturally. Even at Mars Hill, Paul pointed out to the Greeks, that it is God
that sets national boundaries. Bear in mind that the Greeks are still reeling
over the fact that their once great Empire broke into four parts (prophesied in
Daniel 8:8), and now had been conquered by Rome. The Holy Spirit says through Paul:
Acts 17:26 “And He has made from one blood every nation
of men to dwell on all the face of the earth, and has determined their
preappointed times and the boundaries of their dwellings, NKJV
As a result of Noah’s request, Japheth received more
territory—perhaps a double portion as elsewhere in Scripture the oldest was
sometimes allotted a double portion of inheritance if a good reason was given
(e.g., Deuteronomy 21:17). Japheth was the eldest and his godly actions here
resulted in increased territory, where Shem’s godly actions earned him a
different type of blessing.
Nevertheless, the earth should have been originally divvied
up evenly among Noah’s three sons—later in Scripture, God was very specific
about inheritance—so there is no reason to presume that it was done differently
here until Noah asked God to enlarge Japheth’s territory.
The majority of Noah’s descendants left records and names
all over the world as they spread from Babel.[1]
What we see in Scripture and then built on from historical records is that
Japheth’s descendants largely went to Europe and North Asia.
Ham’s descendants largely went toward Africa and Arabia except
Nimrod, a descendant of Cush who remained in the region of Babylonia, set up a
kingdom, and invaded Assyria (Genesis 10:10-12). Shem’s descendants remained in
the Middle East and went toward India and beyond. Of course, there are some
exceptions to this regional breakdown, but this was primarily the case.
In a general sense then, if the earth was split into four quadrants then Japheth received the two northern quadrants, Ham received the lower left quadrant, and Shem received the lower right quadrant as well as the region surrounding Babel buffering both Japheth and Ham (see Initial Settlement Maps).
As mentioned, there are exceptions, as some people migrated
or moved outside of these general boundaries after the dispersion at Babel—for
various reasons, such as famines, wars, or geography. The point is that, in
fulfillment of Noah’s blessing (Genesis 9:27), Japheth really did (at least directionally)
inherit more land.
Japheth’s Initial Settlements Map (by Bodie Hodge) 1[2]
Ham’s Initial Settlements Map 2 (by Bodie Hodge) [3]
Shem’s Initial Settlements Map 3 (by Bodie Hodge) [4]
If Noah’s descendants had remained within their assigned
boundaries, then there wouldn’t have been the need for a confusion of languages
(Genesis 11:7). However, they defied God’s command and traveled westward, where
they eventually dwelt together in the land of Shinar, which means “between two
rivers”. They decided in unison to build a city and a tower to make a name for
themselves so they would not be scattered (Genesis 11:2-5).
Hence, Babel was founded. Babel (A.K.A.
Babylon) has a long history and, next to Jerusalem, is one of the most attested
cities in the ancient world. Though Babylon no longer exists, Jerusalem still
does exist at this stage of history—even after surviving several destructions.
Archaeological Babel is located about 59 miles southwest of
the modern city of Baghdad in Iraq. The modern country of Iraq is named for the ancient city of Erech mentioned in Genesis 10:10 and Ezra 4:9 (Iraq is a mild
variation of that name). The city of Babel was excavated and initially documented
by German archaeologist Robert Koldewey in AD 1899. Since then, many other
German archaeologists have been taking the lead in excavating Babel with several
foundation stones confirming the site.
The Timing of the Founding of Babel
The founding of Babel was after the Flood and obviously prior to the dispersion from Babel. It was also prior to the call of Abraham (Genesis 12), who was not at Babel—nor was he born yet. Nonetheless, God made him a great nation. In fact, Abraham’s descendants still dominate much of the Middle East to this day.
In the 1700s, chronologist Antoine Augustin Calmet placed
the dispersion events at 113 years after the Flood.[5]
In the 1600s, Archbishop James Ussher placed Babel’s dispersion five years
after the birth of Peleg (who was born 101 years after the Flood) by appealing
to Greek historian Manetho (who lived in the third century BC). Manetho stated
that these events occurred 5 years after Peleg was born. So, Ussher reiterates
this with 106 years after the Flood.[6]
The Bible is not specific as to the exact date. We know the division
took place “in
the days of Peleg” (Genesis 10:25), so this at least gives us a range—it
must have been during Peleg’s lifetime. Consider that Peleg’s entire lifetime
was within Noah’s lifetime because
Noah actually outlived Peleg!
Chart by Bodie Hodge
But what exactly does “in the days of Peleg” mean? Is it when he was born, weaned, or ready for marriage? Or rather did people elect different rulers or kings at different times, and this happened to be when Peleg was in charge or was being honored? The Bible often speaks of others in a similar fashion (e.g., “in the days of Amraphel”, Genesis 14:1; “in the days of Saul”, 1 Samuel 17:12; “in the days of David”, 2 Samuel 21:1; “in the days of Solomon, 1 Kings 10:21; etc.). The fact is that we simply don’t know which case is correct.
Since Peleg’s descendants speak the variant languages of his
father (Heber/Eber), which is where the names “Heberew” and “Hebrew” come from,
it makes sense that the scattering was early enough in Peleg’s life to be
associated with his father’s family and language (that is, as opposed to having
his own family and language yet). For instance, Abraham and Joseph, as
descendants of Peleg, were called “Hebrews” (Genesis 14:13; 41:12). Also, one
variation of Eber’s language (i.e., biblical Hebrew) was passed down to descendants
like Moses and David.
Eber, the father of Peleg and Joktan, was 34 when he
fathered Peleg (Genesis 11:16). Yet Joktan, Peleg’s brother, had 13 sons who
were old enough to leave Babel, with their families and a new language, by the
time the scattering event occurred at the Tower of Babel (Genesis 10:25-31). Clearly,
from Peleg’s birth to the scattering event, enough time had passed for his
brother to marry and have 13 children,[7]
who were old enough to have their own families and language.
Nevertheless, Babel was around prior to the dispersion, and
it must have been a significant city, with a significant tower, by the time the
division occurred. Otherwise, it wouldn’t have been called a city or a tower.
When the people were divided at Babel, most of them likely
already knew where to go, because they were familiar with the territorial
divisional breakdown that extended back to Noah (with a few exceptions
naturally). Recall that Noah asked God to enlarge Japheth’s territorial gains
in Genesis 9:27.
Upon the mass exodus of people, due to the splitting of
tongues, they obviously ceased building the city (Genesis 11:8). Clearly, the
city had a growth pause at this point.
But when was Babel
founded? Obviously, it was after the
people left Noah’s farm and settled in the plains in the land of Shinar. That
would be its “official” founding date. More specifically, it would have been after Canaan was born, thus after the
events at Noah’s farm, when Noah became drunk and lay uncovered in his tent (Genesis
9:20-27).
Obviously, Ham’s actions toward his father, during this
incident, were grossly inappropriate. So, when Noah awoke and found out what
Ham had done, he called down a curse. But notice that Noah did not curse Ham (and
rightfully so). For God had previously blessed Shem, Ham, and Japheth (Genesis 9:1),
so far be it for Noah to curse whom God had blessed. Thus, Noah instead cursed
Ham’s youngest son Canaan (Genesis 9:25), whom many commentators suggest
was like Ham but worse. In fact, from biblical history, some of Canaan’s
progeny turned out to be downright evil (e.g., see Leviticus 18 for a list of some
of their egregious sins).
Canaan had 11 sons that came out with a new language at
Babel (Genesis 10:15-18), including Sidon, Heth, and Jebus (Anglicized), the father of the Jebusites
(Genesis 10:16) who founded Jerusalem. So, it is likely that Canaan was
fatherless at the time of this curse from Noah, yet still old enough to have 11
grown children with families by the time of the scattering event.
During the time it took to move things from the Ark to
Noah’s farm, they likely had to do a great deal of scouting and mapping of the
land—which could’ve taken many years. After Noah had found a site to plant his
vineyard, it likely took 5–8 years for the vineyard to grow to maturity for a
decent harvest, particularly for wine. Also, keep in mind that Canaan was the
youngest out of four sons from Ham, all of whom were born after the Flood.
But even with these key pieces of information, it is still
difficult to give a definitive answer on the founding date of Babel. As an
educated guess, the date could be
as early as 15-20 years after the Flood, or as late as 60-80 years
after the Flood—or most likely somewhere in between. But, of course, this date
range depends on how long they were Noah’s dependents on his farm—which we
simply are not told.
Although this leaves us without a precise date, it still gives
us food for thought regarding Babel’s founding. In summary, the founding was
soon after Noah’s descendants left his farm, settled in the plains, and it was
likely after Noah cursed his grandson Canaan. So, it is safe to say that Babel was founded within the first century
after the Flood.
Who took over Babel after the scattering?
Babel has a long history (so bear with me, this is a long article after all). So, what happened after the scattering event? The Bible gives us a piece of its early history. Genesis 10 says:
Cush begot Nimrod; he began to be a
mighty one on the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the LORD; therefore it
is said, "Like Nimrod the mighty hunter before the LORD." And the
beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of
Shinar. From that land he went to Assyria and built Nineveh, Rehoboth Ir,
Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah (that is the principal city).
(Genesis 10:8-12)
Nimrod, Noah’s great grandson, took over four cities
including Babel (after the scattering event) for his new kingdom. From there,
he went out of the land of Shinar and into the land of Assyria, which is the
land of Noah’s grandson Asshur (Genesis 10:22). From those four initial cities
of his kingdom, Nimrod then built four more cities in Asshur’s land for his
progeny, and perhaps conquered some of Asshur’s descendants (the Assyrians)
too.
The land of Asshur (Assyria) has been dually associated with
the land of Nimrod ever since. Consider Micah 5:6, which reads,
“They shall waste with the sword the land of Assyria, And the land of
Nimrod at its entrances; Thus He shall deliver us from the Assyrian, When he
comes into our land And when he treads within our borders.” (NKJV)
Historically, as a result of Nimrod’s descendants conquering/mixing
with Asshur’s descendants, the land of Babylonia (the region around Babel) and
Assyria became skewed, which also overlapped into the Greek historian
Herodotus’s day (5th century BC).[8]
Recall that even one of the initial cities of Nimrod’s kingdom, Erech,
is essentially what we call modern day Iraq.
As a point of note, Genesis 11:1-9 is the chronological
account of the scattering event. But Genesis 10, although it precedes Genesis
11:1-9 in our Bible, is actually the divisional breakdown of languages and
peoples on the earth as result of the dispersion. So, Genesis 10:8-12 is
speaking of events that occurred as a
result of the division of languages and people across the earth.
Babel did not rest idle long but was soon overtaken by Nimrod after the dispersion. According to ancient histories, Nimrod set up his throne in Babel itself.
The names Babel
and Babylon are translated from the
same word in Hebrew (בבל), which occurs 233 verses in the Old Testament. Though,
it is only translated as Babel twice—once in Genesis 10:10 and once in Genesis
11:9. After the scattering event at Babel in Genesis 11, the remaining occurrences
of the Hebrew בבל are translated according to the Greek word for Babel (Βαβυλων),
which is Babylon, when referring to the city, region, and subsequent empires.
How long did Nimrod reign and what happened to Babel after him?
The Bible simply doesn’t give us that many details regarding Nimrod’s reign from Babel. At this point in history, Scripture shifts to follow Abraham and his descendants to Christ, when God makes Abraham’s descendants a great nation in contrast to the other post-Babel nations.
So we must instead turn to recorded extra-biblical history
to find a reasonable answer. The Georgian
Account, as well as another account called Armenian Chronicle (by Movses Khorenatsi), tells us that Nimrod
reigned 126 years until he was killed in battle fighting against the Armenians.
Specifically, it’s recorded that he was killed by the son of Togarmah named Hayk
(also known as Hyak/Hiak). Togarmah was the son of Gomer, the son of Japheth,
the son of Noah. Although, some of these historical accounts mix up certain details
about peoples after Babel (which is expected from fallible history), we can
generally follow who they were discussing.[9]
Even so, Belus
Nimrod expanded his kingdom far and wide until his death. Note, Belus is a title, like “chief,” “lord,” or
“king” (from Nimrod’s line, Noah, Ham, and Cush also had the title of Belus). In Dr. John Gill’s commentary
notes on Genesis 10:6, he quotes early Christian historian Eusebius:
“the Babylonians say, that the
first was Belus, called Cronus or Saturn (that is, Noah), and of him was
begotten another Belus and Chanaan (it should be read Cham), and he (i.e. Ham)
begat Chanaan, the father of the Phoenicians; and of him another son, Chus, was
begotten, whom the Greeks call Asbolos, the father of the Ethiopians, and the
brother of Mestraim, the father of the Egyptians.”[10]
After Nimrod established himself as a king and began
conquering the surrounding lands (Genesis 10:10-11), he was sadly elevated to a
godlike status by his descendants, worshiped simply as “Belus/Bel”, or the more
common “Baal/Ba’al”.[11]
He was also known as Marduk/Merodach, who is equated with “Bel” in Jeremiah
50:2.
After the language splitting at Babel, many patriarchs, who
were listed at Babel, came out with multiple names (due to the multiple
languages). One variation name of Nimrod was “Ninus”, which is where the name Ninevah
comes from—Nineveh and Nimroud (also called “Calah”) were early cities named
from Nimrod and his variant names. [12]
Ninus’s description given by ancient historians Diodorus Siculus (Library of History) and Justin (Histori Romani Scriptorium) match Nimrod
rather well.
Figure 1 The peak of Nimrod’s/Ninus kingdom according to Diodoros
After Nimrod’s death, his kingdom fell apart into petty
kingdoms in certain local areas. Eusebius relates that event closer to home,
stating that Queen Semiramis (which some suggest was the wife of Nimrod) retained
power, reigning for 42 years in Assyria[13],
and was known for building projects in Babylon.
Many of the local rulers vied for power in Nimrod’s broken
kingdom, controlling bits and pieces of this former kingdom. Sometime after
Nimrod’s death (and possibly Semiramis’s death), during this aftermath, a war
broke out between two groups of vying kings, as mentioned in Genesis 14:1-9
(NKJV):
“And
it came to pass in the days of Amraphel king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar,
Chedorlaomer king of Elam, and Tidal king of nations, that they made war with Bera king of Sodom,
Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, Shemeber king of Zeboiim, and
the king of Bela (that is, Zoar).
All
these joined together in the Valley of Siddim (that is, the Salt Sea). Twelve
years they served Chedorlaomer, and in the thirteenth year they rebelled. In
the fourteenth year Chedorlaomer and the kings that were with him came and
attacked the Rephaim in Ashteroth Karnaim, the Zuzim in Ham, the Emim in Shaveh
Kiriathaim, and the Horites in their mountain of Seir, as far as El Paran,
which is by the wilderness.
Then
they turned back and came to En Mishpat (that is, Kadesh), and attacked all the
country of the Amalekites, and also the Amorites who dwelt in Hazezon Tamar.
And the king of Sodom, the king of Gomorrah, the king of Admah, the king of
Zeboiim, and the king of Bela (that is, Zoar) went out and joined together in
battle in the Valley of Siddim against Chedorlaomer king of Elam, Tidal king of
nations, Amraphel king of Shinar, and Arioch king of Ellasar — four
kings against five.”
This is the war that Abraham was dragged into and fought to
successfully rescue his nephew Lot (Genesis 14:12-16). By this point in history,
these smaller kingdoms were setting the stage for later empires like the
Akkadian Empire, Assyrian Empire, the flourishing of Egypt, and so on.
Chronologist and Archbishop James Ussher places the
scattering event at Babel at 2242 BC.[14]
But keep in mind, this date is likely a little early, based on our previous
discussion. Nevertheless, if we estimate the number of years needed for people
to move, settle, build, and populate nearby cities, plus the number of years
needed for Nimrod to grow in power, build an army, and set himself up as a king
over four cities, to be around 20-50 years, then Nimrod could’ve reigned for
126 years.
Roughly, this would be about 146-176 years after Babel. If
so, then Nimrod’s reign would’ve come to an end around 2096 -2066 BC (2024 if
you include Semiramis’s subsequent reign). Abraham was born in 1996 BC (according
to Ussher) and moved away from his homeland when he was 75 years old (Genesis
12:4). So this recorded history fits logically into the plain reading of
Scripture.
During Nimrod’s reign, the city of Babylon began to regrow.
The Tower became known as the Tower of Bel, after “Belus Nimrod” or the “Temple Tower of Marduk”—another variant name
for Nimrod. Because he controlled it for so long, it’s also easy to see why
many historians (e.g., Josephus) mistakenly think that the Tower was founded by
Nimrod and the misconception that
Nimrod’s kingdom began solely at Babylon, instead of four different
cities (Genesis 10:10).
Because of the regions that Nimrod conquered, the prominence
of the Tower was widely known being in the seat of power of Babylon. Although
many rulers and conquerors, after Nimrod’s death, took possession of Babylon
and laid claim to the Tower—even after repairing, destroying, or expanding it,
the name of the Tower was not easily disassociated from Belus Nimrod. In fact, the
Tower of Bel/Belus was still widely known even into the 5th century
BC.[15]
Nevertheless, another name was consistently associated with
the tower since about 2000 BC—Etemenanki. Unlike the Tower of Bel or
Tower of Marduk, this name is different in that it is a name that gives a description
of the tower. Etemenanki means the “temple of the foundation of heaven to
earth”. This descriptor name of the tower was also commonly used in cuneiform
since about 2000 BC. Interestingly, this name reflects a variation of the
language used of the Babel builders “and a tower whose top is in the heavens”
from Genesis 11:4.[16]
After Nimrod’s death, however, the city’s prominence was merely
a remnant of its former glory as the seat of power. Over the years, power was
an ebb and flow in Babylon.
Babel after Nimrod and Semiramis
From this point in time, there is a lot of recorded history from Babylon that is quite well known to historians. As this history unfolds, the Akkadians (some of Nimrod’s descendants through his son Accad/Akkad) held control of the city of Babel/Babylon and was ruled by Sargon the Great (also known as Sargon of Akkad).
Based on some unreliable (sketchy) history, the Third
Dynasty of Ur once held the city for a short time before Sargon and that ruling
class quickly floundered. This is possible after all. Given the collapse of the remnant of Nimrod’s
empire, particularly when Semiramis’s reign ended, Babylon may have changed
hands routinely during this post-empire epoch prior to the Akkadians securing control
with Sargon.
Amorites and Hammurabi
From Hammurabi forward secular and Christian accounts largely agree on the history of Babylon. Hence, much of this historical information following is merely a record of what can be found in many ancient histories of Babylon and reiterated in modern encyclopedias.
After Sargon and the Akkadians, the dynasty of Isin (who
also controlled Ur) took control of Babylon. Then, in a short course of events,
the Amorites (descendants of Amoreus [Latinized]
the son of Canaan) took control of Babylon. The Old City of Babylon comes to
more light historically and archaeologically by the time of Hammurabi, an
Amorite king, who reigned out of Babylon.
After his father King Sin-Muballit left his crown, King
Hammurabi then ascended to the throne and conquered the Sumerian dynasty of
Isin in Mesopotamia, which gave him access to Babylon. King Hammurabi reigned
from 1800-1750 BC. This date range would have been around the time of Isaac,
Jacob (Israel), and Esau (Edom).
Hammurabi then worked to transform the city, becoming a
popular trade center. Hammurabi’s 282 law codes are well known, to this day,
from archeological finds inscribed in stone (consider Romans 2:15). His
policies built up the city and maintained peace. As examples, he built enlarged
city walls, more temples, and canals for better access to the city and
irrigation.
Just like after Nimrod’s death, the empire again fell apart after
King Hammurabi’s death. After being in disarray for some time, the Hittites
(descendants of Heth, the son of Canaan) attacked and took the city, roughly
around 1600 BC. For reference, this point in history was just before Aaron and
Moses were born (while the Israelites were in Egypt).
Let’s pause for a moment because it may seem odd that so
many different peoples conquered
Babylon. Babylon was the center of all peoples at the scattering. So, even
though the tribes leaving Babel could’ve potentially settled far away, many
representatives of these fleeing nations would’ve still left pockets of tribes
nearby. That is, they built cities, fought, and warred repeatedly—unless
conquered (and sometimes assimilated) for a time by larger empires with rulers
like Nimrod, Sargon, or Hammurabi.
But keep in mind that these pockets of nations were located
in just about every direction from the proximity of Babel. So, when you think
about it carefully, it makes logical sense why so many different peoples
conquered Babel.
Kassites and Assyrians
After Hammurabi, Babylon was taken by the Kassites and they called the city Karanduniash. They ruled for over 400 years. The language of the Kassites remains unclassified (called a language isolate), differing from most common languages that exists today in the world. It’s possible this group was originally at Babel and over time their language became lost due to reasons such as wars, slavery, intermixing, and conflicts (this is common with many lost languages). Though they generally had good trade relations with most people around them, they still warred with Assyria and a few others.
Although the Kassites ruled for multiple centuries (by far
the longest dynasty to control Babylon), only a relatively small amount of their
history still exists today, which could be (at least partly) due to this
language barrier.
After the Kassite Empire was finally overthrown, the second
Dynasty of Isin (who rules in the cities of Ur [of the Chaldeans] and Isin) then
secured control of Babylon for a time.
At one stage during this time, Babylon rebelled against
them, which then allowed the Assyrians (a mix of descendants from Asshur and
Nimrod), under their famous king Sennacherib, to sack the city. For
reference, this event was around the same timeframe as King Hezekiah and the
prophet Isaiah (around the 7th-8th century BC). In fact, Sennacherib even tried
conquering Jerusalem, which caused Hezekiah to cry out to God for help and resulted
in God rescuing the city and sending Sennacherib back to Nineveh.
When the city of Babylon rebelled, Sennacherib had Babylon destroyed
and then flooded. And it was this flooding event that caused the water table to
raise against the city, thus causing problems to this day for archaeologists. That
is, the Old City of Babylon’s ruins (i.e., before/during the time of Hammurabi)
are beneath the water table, which means any attempts to excavate the
area are met with difficulty (due to underground flooding).
Sennacherib writes in his Annals, which are preserved for
us:
“On another campaign, I marched
quickly against Babylon as I had decided to conquer it….The city and its
houses, foundations and walls, I destroyed, I devastated, I burned with fire.
The wall and outer-wall, temples and gods, temple-towers of brick and earth, as
many as there were, I razed and dumped them into the Arahtu canal. Through the
midst of that city I dug canals, I flooded its site with water and the very
foundation thereof I destroyed. I made its destruction more complete than that
by a flood. That in days to come, the site of that city, and its temples and
gods, might not be remembered, I completely blotted it out with floods of water
and made it like a meadow.
After I had destroyed Babylon, had
smashed the gods thereof, and had struck down its people with the sword, that
the ground of that city might be carried off, I removed its ground and had it
carried to the Euphrates and on to the sea. Its dirt reached unto the Dilmun,
the Dilmunites saw it and the terror of fear of Asshur fell upon them and they
brought their treasures…I removed the dust of Babylon for presents to be sent
to the most distant peoples.”[17]
The following king of Assyria, Esarhaddon (one of Sennacherib’s
son), rebuilt Babylon back to its famed glory in his short 12-year reign, which
showed the dedication to build the new city over the previously razed
foundations. The scale of destruction by Sennacherib was unlike previous
battles for the city where the larger structures were usually rededicated,
which included the temples and towers. Not only did Sennacherib devastate the
structures, but he also lowered the ground level and increased the water table
for flooding. He really hated that the city rebelled against him.
According to ancient Assyrian records, Esarhaddon rebuilt the
major structures largely matching the previous architecture and style—using baked
mud bricks and asphalt to keep with the original style.[18]
But even so, the water table remained and still does to this day.
For example, the rebuilt temple tower was still called the
Tower of Belus. as well as still being called the Etemenanki.,
The rebuild effort initially constructed by Esarhaddon was later
expanded under the Babylonian Empire during the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II, which
also used the same name, Etemenanki. World
renowned archaeologist Dr. Clifford Wilson suggests this site possibly sits above
the original Tower of Babel. He writes:
“This large pool at modern Babylon
is over the ruins of an early structure that was possibly the original Tower of
Babel.”[19]
In this image, you can see how the water table causes the pool in the foundational area of the Etemenanki, which was later removed by Alexander the Great’s men with the intention of rebuilding it (more on that in a moment). Archaeologist Gary Byer says of the same site:
“Etemenanki. I wouldn’t be
surprised if beneath the foundation of that ziggurat temple if there
wouldn’t be evidence of the Tower of Babel. But you can’t get down there
because the water level is so high…So maybe the Tower of Babel was there.”[20]
“I think the Tower of Babel was the
first ziggurat.”[21]
For reference, the name ziggurat comes from the Sumerian and
Babylonian name zaqaru (which means
“to rise high”). A ziggurat is like a step pyramid. Square in its base and
multiple levels as it rises up.
Back to Babylon’s rule, Esarhaddon’s oldest son and heir
died young. But in a strange move, Esarhaddon gave power of his throne, not to
his next son in line for the throne (Shamash-shum-ukin), but instead to his
younger son (Ashurbanipal). In attempt for consolation, Shamash-shum-ukin
was given charge of Babylon itself, yet still under the authority of his
younger brother, Ashurbanipal. This was the initial makings of a
rebellion (in case you didn’t notice).
Ashurbanipal of Assyria and Nineveh (the younger brother and
now supreme ruler or the empire) defeated the city of Babylon (ruled by his
older brother Shamash-shum-ukin) as it tried to revolt. But records indicate
little damage was done in this battle.
Nebuchadnezzar II and the Golden Age
After the fall of the Assyrians, Babylon was taken over by the Chaldeans (descendants of Heber) under Nabopolassar. They spoke a version of Heber’s language called Chaldean (a name itself directly derived from Chesed—Genesis 22:22). This was the beginning of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar’s son, Nebuchadnezzar II, renovated the city and built it to its peak of glory, which then began the golden age of Babylon.
The Etemenanki tower’s reconstruction, initially done by
Esarhaddon, needed to be finished because it had fallen into disrepair, with
major portions of it decimated due to neglect and weathering.
The Etemenanki of Nebuchadnezzar’s day was the latest repair
and rendition of the tower site. But note that the name of the site remained
the same through its various constructions and repairs. This makes sense
historically since calling it by any other name would have indicated something
entirely different. But due to its design similarity, it is easy to see why the
name of the site remained consistent.
Also, it’s important to notice that the one time (at least that
we know of) the tower is destroyed, razed to the ground, it’s then rebuilt
shortly afterwards by the destroyer’s son, who was familiar with the previous
tower’s design. That is, he rebuilt it to its previous design according to the Assyrian
cuneiform that was contemporaneous to the times.
Babylon also had the famed Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the
famous Ishtar Gate, the Ésagila Complex (the center court
and temple of Babylon), and so much more. Without belaboring too much, this era
in history of Babylon is extremely well known. After this golden age of
Babylon, Babylon fell under the control of the Persians and Medes, and then to
the Greeks (with Alexander the Great, who died in Babylon).
Alexander the Great had the tower deconstructed in an effort
to totally rebuild it again. But his untimely death ultimately halted these
rebuild efforts. After the Greeks, then the Roman Empire took control of the
area. Finally, the Sasanian Empire took over Babylon, which resulted in a brief
revival before being ultimately destroyed, due to Muslim conquests in AD 650,
where its ruins lay in the sand as a “tell” (not excavated until 1899).
Archaeology of the Ancient Tower
Due to the higher water table, excavations of the tower’s foundation are obviously difficult. German archaeologists have spearheaded much of the recent discovery (over the past 100+ years). Yet, since much of it is documented in German, many people (especially those who speak English) have failed to realize the significance of their finds. Here’s just some of the archaeologists and authorities on the subject:
·
Koldeway, 1899 Babylon
·
Freidrich Wetzel, 1913 Tower at Babylon-1938
·
D.D. Luckenbill, 1924
·
Theodor Dombart, 1915-1930
·
FH Weissbach, 1938
·
Wolfram von Soden, 1939-1996
·
Hansjörg Schmid, 1995
Fortunately, all is not lost. Professor Andrew George at the
University of London, who is an expert in Assyrian and Babylonian cuneiform documents,
has summed up much of the German archaeology on the Tower of Babel.[22]
However, as a caveat, George does not believe in the Tower of Babel as
listed in the Bible, as evidenced by the very first line from one of his extensive
research papers on the subject, which he says:
“Such is the fame of the myth
of the Tower of Babel related in Genesis 11 that the publication of a new
monograph on the building generally thought to have inspired the myth is
an important event.”[23]
[italics mine]
Nonetheless, regardless of George’s personal opinions on
Genesis, there have been several significant findings regarding the tower’s
base and platform.
Prior to Sennacherib’s destruction of the city, the
Etemenanki (tower) was mentioned on the Ésagila Tablet of Uruk,[24] giving
its base dimension, which translates to about 90 meters (295 feet) on each
base.
Recall that Sennacherib’s
son, Esarhaddon, claimed to rebuild the destroyed Tower to its former measure:
“Perhaps it represents the building that Sennacherib damaged during his
sack of Babylon, but perhaps not. If one recalls how careful Esarhaddon was to
rebuild the neighbouring E-sangil exactly to its former measurements, one might
have expected him also to have set about building Etemen-anki with similarly
faithful adherence to the dimensions of the previous structure.”[25]
“Indeed, the phrases he uses in connection with the rebuilding of the
tower are kima mahrîmma ‘as before’ and asar maskanisu mahrî (written
a-sar mas-kán-sú mah-ri, Borger 1956: 24, 32) ‘in its previous
location’, which can both be interpreted to signify exactly that.”[26]
Nebuchadnezzar II
commented in ancient cuneiform writings that he rebuilt the tower on its
previous base saying:
“Through the craft of exorcism, the
wisdom of Ea and Marduk, I purified that place and made firm its foundation
platform on its ancient base.”[27]
Furthermore, there also exists the Tower of Babel Stele with an image of Nebuchadnezzar II and the seven level tower with an inscription.
The inscription states:
“Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon am
I: In order to complete [the towers] Etemenanki and Eurmeiminanki, I mobilized
all countries everywhere … the base I filled in to make a high terrace. I built
their structures with bitumen and baked brick throughout. I completed it
raising its top to the heaven ….”[28]
This tower survived into Herodotus’s day (in the 5th century BC). Since his dimensions were larger, including one more level as compared to historical comments from previous centuries, it’s possible this is the reason why it was not recorded by historians. Herodotus writes about the Tower in Babylon saying:
“[It] was still in existence in my time. It has a solid central tower,
one stadium square, with a second erected on top of it and then a third, and so
on up to eight. All eight towers can be climbed by a spiral way running round
the outside, and about half way up there are seats for those who make the
ascent to rest on.” [29]
As you may have noticed, there are discrepancies between the
Tower’s description in Nebuchadnezzar’s day and Herodotus’s day. For example,
the Tower of Babel Stele has a 7-level tower and Herodotus mentioned 8. So was
it 7 levels or 8?
Some have suggested that the differences could be due to:
·
There’s an extra story on the upper temple;
·
The ground level is included in the count;
·
He received his information from the Babylonians
who were exaggerating (there were points where he didn’t believe certain things
they were declaring);
·
Herodotus wrote after the fact;
·
Herodotus never mentioned he was there (but that
it existed in his time);
·
It’s an ideal description but not a historical
description;
·
There are only 7 relevant extant copies, with
the earliest from the 10th Century AD, that could have changed the information.
These suggestions are interesting to think about, but the
obvious answer is that there have been changes (e.g., repairs and
modifications) from Nebuchadnezzar II’s day to Herodotus’s day. There had been
about 200 or so years between the two descriptions. Having the structure
modified to have 8 levels is not unreasonable.
After Herodotus, Alexander the Great had the Tower torn down
to be rebuilt. But due to his early death, the project also succumbed to an
early “death”, and thus was never rebuilt.
Thus, the tower remains were left to the elements from that day until its excavation in 1899. Although the water table is higher and excavation is difficult, there have been discoveries that are quite significant for the foundation of the Tower. German archaeologist Hansjörg Schmid discovered three successive foundations under the ruins. Professor George relates:
“Careful survey and measurement of
the ruined infrastructure led Schmid to identify the remains of three
successive buildings, not two. The oldest structure was a tower of mud brick
measuring about 65 m square at its base, which had suffered heavy damage.
Superimposed on this core was a mantle of more mud brick anchored into the
older structure with timber beams and measuring about 73 m square at its base.
The brickwork of this mantle and the older core had later been cut back below
ground to about 60 m square; the residual shelf of compressed mud brick (the
so-called ‘Tonbettung’) then served as a partial platform for a more durable
mantle of baked brick measuring about 91 m square at its base.”[30]
The three foundational cores break down to:
•
65 Meter Core = 213 Feet (Lowest)
•
73 Meter Core = 239 Feet (Middle)
•
91 Meter Core = 298 Feet (Highest)
So, from ancient records, the Tower’s base size prior
to Sennacherib, his son Esarhaddon/Ashurbanipal’s rebuild, Nabopolassar’s repairs,
and Nebuchadnezzar II’s rebuild were all on the 91-meter (298-foot) base. So
how far back does that base go? Professor George asks:
“Who, then, might originally have
been responsible for this ziqqurrat of base one ikû in the large cubit-standard? And who, before that, might have
built the mud-brick towers of bases 73 m and 65 m square?”[31]
Based on historical prowess of power and capability, only a
few of Babylon’s rulers could have possessed the required resources to successfully
accomplish such a project. Professor George argues for the following few
candidates:
- Hammurabi
- Kurigalzu I Kassite King 14th
century BC (likely not by all accounts) walls repaired
- Adadsumausar Kassite King (likely not by
all accounts) walls repaired
Two of these three kings are not likely candidates—and George
agrees. Then Professor George writes something intriguing that nearly escaped
my eye. He said:
“…another list may even derive from the Kassite period (George 1993: 45-9
no. 4). The reference to a ziqqurrat at Babylon in the Creation Epic (Enuma
elis· VI 63: George 1992: 301-2) is more solid evidence, however, for a
Middle Assyrian piece of this poem survives to prove the long-held theory that
it existed already in the second millennium BC. There is no reason to doubt
that this ziqqurrat, described as ziqqurrat apsî elite ‘the upper
ziqqurrat of the Apsû’, was E-temenanki.”[32]
George argues, based on the text from the ancient Enuma Elish, that the tower’s existence
was attested prior to the time of Hammurabi. Recall that Hammurabi was reigning
not long after the Tower of Babel event (which was still after the rule of
Nimrod [and Semiramis] for whom the tower’s name still reflects). Thus, Hammurabi’s
reign was part of the Old Babylonian times. But if Hammurabi accounts for only one
base foundation (likely the 91m core then who was responsible for the other two
base foundations (65m and 73m)?
If I could be so bold, the obvious other candidates that
preceded Hammurabi who were capable of such a project were (a) the Babel
builders in the days of Peleg and (b) Nimrod whose name remained associated
with the tower. The 65m base and the 73m base are surely associated
respectively. Unlike researchers who deny the truth of the Bible in Genesis
10-11, I am not limited in such ways. Instead, I affirm the Babel builders
could do what they set out to do and also affirm Nimrod’s existence and his
presence in Babylon modifying the Tower to his measure during his reign.
Although Professor George (and many others) rejects God’s
Word, thus denying the events in Genesis 11 as real history, he has in fact helped
provide and bring to light incredible evidence to confirm the historical
account in the Bible. Overall, this evidence helps to settle the historical
attestation of the Tower of Babel in archaeological finds. And it confirms the very
name reflecting Nimrod (Bel/Belus/Marduk are variants names of his title) who initially
took over the Tower of Babel.
Babel/Babylon and the Tower at Babel are ancient. Very
ancient. The foundational platforms of the Tower, which still exist, go
back to Hammurabi’s reign and before. So, like other ancient cities (e.g., Jerusalem,
Rome, etc.), Babylon and the Tower has been through hosts of iterations (ebbs
and flows) of various ruling dynasties. As we’ve seen, both historical records
and archaeology attest to this history. But, of course, it is the Word of
God that is supreme to all other sources. God is the ultimate authority
on all subjects, including Babel’s existence and the events that took place, as
recorded in Scripture.
In the end, we can be 100% certain the city of Babel
and its Tower existed. Why? Because God said so. But it is still nice to
have archaeological finds that provide confirmations of the Bible’s account of this
ancient city and Tower. Let’s not miss something though. God sovereignly
decrees everything in history (Psalm 115:3; Isaiah 46:10). So, this means His
purpose was undoubtedly accomplished at Babel. People have indeed scattered
abroad all over the face of the earth, thus filling the earth, and continue to
do so. God’s purposes were not thwarted by any means.
[1]
Bodie Hodge, The Tower of Babel, Master Books, Green Forest, AR, pp. 113-191.
[2]
Bodie Hodge, The Tower of Babel, Master Books, Green Forest, AR, pp. 149-182.
[3]
Bodie Hodge, The Tower of Babel, Master Books, Green Forest, AR, pp. 122-134.
[4]
Bodie Hodge, The Tower of Babel, Master Books, Green Forest, AR, pp. 134-149.
[5] Augustin
Calmet, Calmet’s Dictionary of the Holy
Bible, rev. Edward Robinson (Boston, MA: Crocker and Brewster, 1832), 948.
[6]
James Ussher, The Annals of the World,
rev. Larry and Marion Pierce (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2006), 21-22.
[7]
The Bible simply doesn’t tell us if Joktan had one or many wives, which could
speed up the number of children one can have in a short time.
[8]
For example, Herodotus states, “There were many rulers of Babylon who have
further adorned the city with walls and sanctuaries. Some of these I will
mention in my history of Assyria…”; The Landmark Herodotus, edited by Robert
Strassler, Anchor Books, Inc., New York, NY, 2007, p. 98.
[9]
Movses Khorenatsi, History of the Armenians, translated by Robert W. Thomson,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1978.
[10]
John Gill, Commentary Notes, Genesis 10:6.
[11]
John Gill Commentary Notes Genesis 10:6.
[12]
Jaimeson, Fausset, Brown Commentary, Notes on Jonah 1:2.
[13]
Eusebius, Chronicle, Beloved Publishing, 2015p. 28-29
[14]
Ibid. 2
[15]
For example Herodotus calls it the Tower
of Belus; The Landmark Herodotus, edited by Robert Strassler, Anchor Books,
Inc., New York, NY, 2007, p. 97-98.
[16] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303824383_The_Tower_of_Babel_Archaeology_history_and_cuneiform_texts.
[17]
Sennacherib Inscriptions as reported by Marc Van De Mieroop, Revenge, Assyrian
Style, Past and Present Society Journal, Oxford University Press, No. 179 (May,
2003), pp. 3-23, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600821; Daniel David
Luckenbill, The Annals of Sennacherib, Oriental Institute Publications 2,
University of Chicago Press, 1924, p. 17, https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/oip2.pdf.
[18] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005.
[19]
The Bible Comes Alive, Volume 1, Clifford and Barbara Wilson, New Leaf Press,
Green Forest, AR, second Printing 2000, P. 47.
[20]
Gary Byers, Henry Smith, and Scott Lanser, The Ancient City of Babylon: Digging
for the Truth—Episode 47, https://biblearchaeology.org/mediainfo/digging-for-truth/episodes/4553-digging-for-truth-episode-47-the-ancient-city-of-babylon.
[21]
Ibid.
[22] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005.
[23]
Ibid.
[24] Ésagila
Tablet of Uruk, https://louvrebible.org.uk/oeuvre/137/louvre_departement_antiquites_orientales.
[25] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005.
[26] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005.
[27] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005.
[28]
Christopher Eames, Nebuchadnezzar’s ‘Tower of Babel’, Armstrong Institute of
Biblical Archaeology, November 11, 2018, https://armstronginstitute.org/125-nebuchadnezzars-tower-of-babel#:~:text=Tower%20of%20Babel%20Stele%20The%20Tower%20of%20Babel,as%20part%20of%20the%20private%20Norwegian%20Sch%C3%B8yen%20Collection.
[29] Herodotus,
Histories 1.181-182; tr. Aubrey de Sélincourt, 5th Century BC.
[30] Andrew
George, The Tower of Babel: Archaeology, History and Cuneiform Texts,
University of London, January 2005, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303824383_The_Tower_of_Babel_Archaeology_history_and_cuneiform_texts.
[31]
Ibid.
[32]
Ibid.
